EDU7702-8+The+Application+of+Theory


 * ** EDU7702-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Research Design ** || ** 1 Theoretical framework ** ||
 * Wow Stephen – a very thorough submission for this assignment, I get the feeling that you have been working for some time with adult learning theory. :-) You outlined most of the major works, and described them well, using many sources to back up your statements. Now, I wonder, which of the theories do you intend to hone in on for your own research – and why will you choose it? **
 * I look forward to reading more of your work. **
 * I saw your note about phoning on Friday or Saturday – please identify a specific time and a number to reach you at. **
 * All the best, **
 * All the best, **

=Theoretical Framework = The rapid advances of technology over the past decade have led to a dramatic shift in the demographics of post-secondary students, as about 40% are over the age of 25, and a majority of these more mature learners are increasingly choosing e-learning to pursue higher education ( Ke & Xie, 2009 ) and professional development ( Gunawardena, Linder-VanBerschot, LaPoint, & Rao, 2010 ). Adults, or nontraditional students, learn differently than do traditional students, or younger adults entering post-secondary education straight from secondary education ( Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007; Ke & Xie, 2009; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 ). Historically, these differences have been ignored in higher education, and in online courses,* where the same pedagogies and curriculum face both the traditional and non-traditional learner ( Ke & Xie, 2009 ). There has also been little research outside of higher education regarding how mature adults learn best in a virtual classroom ( Chen & Lien, 2011; Donavant, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In this section various adult learning theories will be expounded to create a foundation from which to address research findings on the optimal ways that adults learn online, along with characteristics that detract from online learning.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult Learning Theories
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">There are dozens of learning theories that provide a rich foundation for understanding the complexity of learning and teaching ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These theories often have common characteristics, have strengths and shortcomings, and have their supporters and detractors. Many of these theories do not differentiate between teaching adults and teaching children, or are not applicable to adult learners ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The theories that do focus on working with the adult learner have the underlying premise that adults learn in a different way; therefore teachers of adults need to use different instructional methods ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Minter, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For this reason many authors utilize the term andragogy to identify the characteristics of and the methods for teaching adult learners, and pedagogy to identify the methods for teaching children ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Commonwealth of Learning, 2000; Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy, “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the art and science of helping adults learn <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard, Hinchey, & Bennett, 2011, p. 2; Cercone, 2008, p. 137 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), has many supporters and is considered foundational. The term was originally coined by Alexander Kapp in 1833 and philosophically flows from Plato’s theory regarding education ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Malcolm Knowles was the leading proponent of andragogy in the U.S. and developed a number of tenets describing the adult learner which have been expanded by various authors. Although originally touted as a complete explanation of how adults learn, Knowles later acknowledged “ pedagogy and andragogy probably represent the ends of a spectrum that ranges from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. Both approaches, he and others now suggest, are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Zemke & Zemke, 1995, para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The main principles of andragogy include: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Despite andragogy there are numerous arguments, discussions, principles propounded regarding adult learning theory with no single unified model, theory, or set of principles all scholars or didacts subscribe to ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The principles of andragogy are accepted by most educators of adults as foundational even though it is acknowledged several factors important to the teaching of adults are not included or emphasized in its precepts ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Donavant, 2009; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another popular theory in the literature professes adults have certain preferred learning styles, and this predilection dictates certain behaviors; among these behaviors are an inclination for receiving instruction in certain ways ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Kozub, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), which acts as a predictor of performance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Huang, Lin, & Huang, 2012; Kozub, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Whereas the research results regarding learning styles is mixed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), it does accentuate adults (and perhaps children) learn differently.*
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are independent and will not necessarily learn what they are told but need to understand why they need to learn something and the benefits it will bring ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners have a varied and rich experience base, as well as different learning styles and motivators. Adult learners want to be acknowledged for and have their experiences used in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are more motivated to learn when a challenge enters their life; encouraging them to discover how to handle better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Donavant, 2009; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are interested in learning how to solve problems, perform tasks, or improve their life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more intrinsically motivated, focusing on aspirations than extrinsically motivated, encouraged by rewards or punishment ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Donavant, 2009; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult E-Learning
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The literature consistently identifies six characteristics contributing to optimal e-learning for adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These six characteristics include (a) a strong student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010; Simonson, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) student-student interaction and collaboration ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; McGlone, 2011; Pelz, 2010; Sinclair, 2009; Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) reflection by the learner to tie new learning to existing experience ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Cacciamani, Cesareni, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012; Cercone, 2008; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) development of a sense of community among participants ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, 2007; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) immediate real world application of learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Blanchard et al., 2011; Ke & Xie, 2009; Segrave & Holt, 2003; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) student motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Baskas, 2011b; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research demonstrates that as these characteristics are included and emphasized in online learning the performance, participation, and satisfaction of adult learners increases. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Success in distance education has many factors, but key to learning for the student is development of the student-instructor relationship ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Simonson et al., 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and the instructor’s level of interaction with the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Jackson et al., 2010; Martinez-Caro, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Chyung and Vachon (2005) identified that four of the seven most significant factors contributing to a learner’s satisfaction only were directly related to an instructor’s skills or their interaction with the student. A supportive and nurturing relationship between learner and instructor increases learner satisfaction with online courses ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Shea et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), improves motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and optimizes learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Regarding the second critical success factor in e-learning, Boling et al. (2011) argued today’s technology requires a shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered paradigm, which relegates the instructor to the role of mentor, guide, coach, or facilitator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Cabrera-Lozoya et al., 2012; Oncu & Cakir, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Associated with successfully facilitating online is projecting teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Archambault, Wetzel, Fouger, & Williams, 2010; Bradley, 2009; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">); the ability to connect with students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), encourage them, and provide the necessary scaffolding to promote learning and self-reliance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Anderson, 2008; Cacciamani et al., 2012; Cercone, 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) while staying in the background as much as possible ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009; Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When transitioning from the traditional classroom to online, mastering facilitation can be a great challenge for the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009; Jackson et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and can be the key to success or failure ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Lombardi, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As teaching presence increases, so does student satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donovant, 2009; Ferguson & DeFelice, 2010; Gunawardena et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), engagement ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke & Hoadley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and accomplishments ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) as students actively participate in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another key element to successful learning is self-reflection by the learner, which engenders deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Ke & Xie, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), high-quality learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), meta-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and metacognitive expertise ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cacciamani et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Reflection also allows learners to examine their biases ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and other perspectives ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) so they can internalize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), contextualize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009; Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and transform experience and knowledge into learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Chan Mow, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while boosting motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Baskas, 2011a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and promoting higher order learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Taran, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Studies demonstrate reflection is a key online design dimension ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Ke, 2010; Yang & Cornelius, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and students seem to prefer e-learning because of their ability to reflect before engaging in discussions ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Ke & Hoadley, 2009; Martinez-Caro, 2011; Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A sense of community is vital for successful online learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Boling et al., 2011; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). It is the role of the instructor to lead community-building activities ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Muirhead, 2004 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and his or her example is key to the establishment of a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Ambrose & Ogilvie, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) through accurate and timely feedback ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), encouragement of participation and interaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling et al., 2011; Cornelius, Gordon, & Ackland, 2011; Yang & Cornelius, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), nurturing caring and healthy relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Caine, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and modeling effective and open communication ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Desai et al., 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When students feel a sense of belonging to a community and care for other members of the group, significant benefits have been noted. The benefits to students are they (a) bond earlier and better than in traditional classrooms ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) engage in more reflective thinking ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) comprehend the material better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) are more motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and satisfied ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) persist with their studies ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) learn more ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling et al., 2011; Fahy, 2008; Moisey & Hughes, 2008; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">An additional factor to successful online courses is addressing real-world applications. According to andragogy, students are more interested in immediate problem-centered approaches to learning, so learning can improve their work, family, or personal life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). By encouraging students to bring their experience and problems into the classroom learners are able to construct deeper and more robust knowledge, while expanding their abilities to handle actual problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen et al., 2009; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This application of real-world learning is a motivator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and enriches learning. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The final factor mentioned regularly in the literature is the need for students to be motivated. Motivation has been demonstrated to significantly increase in students because of good student-instructor relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Lam & Bordia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), strong teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), participating or collaborating in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), being encouraged to reflect on new learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having material clearly presented ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Alshare, Freeze, Lane, & Wen, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and working through real-world problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Though student motivation is assumed to be a major factor of adult learning, Kiliç-Cakmak (2010) identified that “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">little or no attention [has been] paid to presentation methods that influence <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 195 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) motivation.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> [AM1] I am curious about this statement (and I see a source) given that online education in the for profit sector would tout that it caters directly to adult students, including the pedagogical approach. Is this source referring to traditional ‘brick and mortar’ schools who attempt online education, or all institutions (including for profits)? Just curious. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> [AM2] Just to note that for APA, a paragraph must have at least three sentences. :-)


 * = References ||
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