The+-+Andragogy

Andragogy
Andragogy, “ the art and science of helping adults learn ” ( Chan, 2010, p. 27; Diabiase & Kidwai, 2010, p. 301; Kistler, 2011, p. 29; Moore, 2010, p. 3 ), seeks to assist and encourage adult learners to be more refined and competent ( Henschke, 2011 ) and reach their full potential ( McGrath, 2009; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 ). Though authors have identified limitations or weaknesses in Knowles’ original conceptualization of andragogy, it is acknowledged by most as the most comprehensive ( Cercone, 2008 ), learner centered ( McGrath, 2009 ), and dominant ( Holton, Wilson, & Bates, 2009 ) theory of adult education. Andragogy focuses on the individual adult learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009; Cercone, 2008; Cheng, Wang, Yang, Kinshuk, & Peng, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and postulates that as people mature, their self-concepts morph from dependency on others to being more self-directed and self-determined in their learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Blaschke, 2012; Cercone, 2008; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emelia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy has served as a way to distinguish instructors who service and work with adults from other teachers ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Chan, 2010, Donavant, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and provides clear guidelines for instructional planning through consideration of “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 15.6px;">adult characteristics, inclinations, and commitments towards learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emelia, 2008, p. 114 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Depending on the author, proponents of andragogy identify four to seven characteristics of the adult learner. These characteristics include; (a) self-direction, (b) experience, (c) a readiness to learn, (d) problem and life focused, (e) need for relevance, and (f) motivation. Self-direction means that adults are independent ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), responsible ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Blaschke, 2012; Harper & Ross, 2011; Keengwe & Georgina, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and autonomous ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008; Chan, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and expect to have some say in what they will learn, and oppose learning that is foisted upon them ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">McGrath, 2009; Moore, 2010; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Experience is a characteristic of mature learners. This experience allows three things; it can be used as a resource in the learning process ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Green & Ballard, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), allows integration of new learning with past experience and events ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008; Marques, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and may be used to validate and build the self-concept of the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Fidishun, 2011; Harper & Ross, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Adults, according to andragogy, want ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and are ready to learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Clapper, 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Marques, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), but they want to have a reason for learning something ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Blaschke, 2012; Harper & Ross, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and need to know how it will benefit them ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008; McGrath, 2009; Moore, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Related to their readiness to learn, as people mature, andragogy details that their learning focus evolves from subject-centered learning to problem-centered learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Keengwe & Georgina, 2011; McGrath, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) that is life-focused and task-oriented ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Chan, 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Moore, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This change in orientation toward learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Chan, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and the demands of life and family, encourage adults to seek learning that is relevant to their home and working lives ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cheng et al., 2011; Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Finally, adult students are typically motivated differently than younger students. Adults are more internally or intrinsically motivated by learning for its own sake ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009; Blaschke, 2012; Chan, 2010; Clapper, 2010; Harper & Ross, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) than driven by external drives, rewards, or punishment avoidance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Karge et al., 2011; Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and according to andragogy, become more so as they mature ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Strang, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy is epistemologically diverse. Cercone (2008) stated that Knowles’ foundation for andragogy is behaviorist, because of the guidelines to enter learning contracts, set objectives, and identify needs. Wang and Kania-Gosche (2011) and others averred that andragogy is based on humanistic learning theory, while McGrath (2009) opined that andragogy, because of its experiential constructs, is grounded in cognitivistic learning theory. In part, it is this diversity that encourages contention regarding whether andragogy can be considered a theory of adult education at all. Chan (2010) identified that andragogy has been termed “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 15.6px;">a theory of adult education, theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">p. 31 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) by various authors, but its usefulness as a means of understanding mature learners must not be ignored.

The Impact of Andragogy on e-Learning
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Six characteristics are consistently identified in the literature as contributing to optimal e-learning for adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These six characteristics include; (a) a strong student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) student-student interaction and collaboration ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) reflection by the learner to tie new learning to existing experience ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Cacciamani, Cesareni, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) development of a sense of community among participants ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Karge et al., 2011; Ke & Xie, 2009; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) immediate real-world application of learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ke & Xie, 2009; Keengwe & Georgina, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) student motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). All of these characteristics of successful online learning are included in the theory of andragogy as set forth by Knowles, with the exception of reflection ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research demonstrates that as these characteristics are included and emphasized in online learning the performance, participation, and satisfaction of adult learners increases ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Success in distance education has many factors, but key to learning for the student is development of the student-instructor relationship ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Mintor, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and the instructor’s level of interaction with the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Jackson et al., 2010; Martinez-Caro, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). A supportive and facilitating relationship between student and instructor increases learner satisfaction with online courses ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Jackson et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), improves student motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and optimizes learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Jackson et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The creation of a safe, relaxed, and trusting educational environment with mutual respect between instructor and student by the instructor is essential for optimal learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Marques, 2012, Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011; Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Regarding the second critical success factor in e-learning, Boling et al. (2011) argued today’s technology requires a shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered paradigm, which relegates the instructor to the role of mentor, guide, coach, or facilitator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Cabrera-Lozoya et al., 2012; Oncu & Cakir, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Associated with successfully facilitating online is projecting teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Archambault, Wetzel, Fouger, & Williams, 2010; Bradley, 2009; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">); the ability to connect with students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), encourage them, and provide the necessary scaffolding to promote learning and self-reliance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cacciamani et al., 2012; Cercone, 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) while staying in the background as much as possible ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009; Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As teaching presence increases, so does student satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Donovant, 2009; Ferguson & DeFelice, 2010; Gunawardena, Linder-VanBerschot, LaPointe, & Rao, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), engagement ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ke & Hoadley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009; Keengwe & Georgina, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) as students actively participate in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Chan, 2010; Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another key element to successful learning is self-reflection by the learner, which engenders deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008; Ke & Xie, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), high-quality learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ke, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), meta-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and metacognitive expertise ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cacciamani et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Studies demonstrate reflection is a key online design dimension ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and students seem to prefer e-learning because of their ability to reflect before engaging in discussions ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ke & Hoadley, 2009; Martinez-Caro, 2011; Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Abela (2009) noted that Knowles left reflection out of his concept of adult learning even though later authors included it as an appropriate strategy ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Blaschke, 2012; Dibiase & Kidwai, 2010; Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A sense of community is vital for successful online learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Boling et al., 2011; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). It is the role of the instructor to lead community-building activities and his or her example is key to the establishment of a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Ambrose & Ogilvie, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) through accurate and timely feedback ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Desai et al., 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), encouragement of participation and interaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Boling et al., 2011; Cornelius, Gordon, & Ackland, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), nurturing caring and healthy relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and modeling effective and open communication ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Desai et al., 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When students feel a sense of belonging to a community and care for other members of the group, significant benefits have been noted. A sense of community allows students to bond earlier and better than in traditional classrooms ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), engage in more reflective thinking ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), comprehend the material better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), be more motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and satisfied ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), persist with their studies ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and learn more ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Boling et al., 2011; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008; Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">An additional factor to successful online courses is addressing real-world applications. According to andragogy, students are more interested in immediate problem-centered approaches to learning, so learning can improve their work, family, or personal life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). By encouraging students to bring their experience and problems into the classroom, learners are able to construct deeper and more robust knowledge, while expanding their abilities to handle actual problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This application of real-world learning is a motivator and enriches learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Fidishun, 2011; Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The final factor for facilitating exceptional online learning is the need for students to be motivated. Motivation has been demonstrated to significantly increase in students because of good student-instructor relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Lam & Bordia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), strong teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), participating or collaborating in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), being encouraged to reflect on new learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having material clearly presented ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abrami et al., 2010; Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Alshare, Freeze, Lane, & Wen, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and working through real-world problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Though student motivation is assumed to be a major factor of adult learning, Kiliç-Cakmak (2010) identified that “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 15.6px;">little or no attention [has been] paid to presentation methods that influence <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">p. 195 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Watts, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 18.2667px;">What is not Known or Controversial
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy has its share of critics. There are general criticisms of the theory and specific criticisms. In the category of general criticisms, Blaschke (2012) noted that andragogy is outmoded because of new technology and teaching methods, while Cercone (2008) and McGrath (2009) argued that the theory has done almost nothing to provide clarity or understanding of how learning occurs. Newman (2012) espoused that transformative learning has taken andragogy’s place as the preeminent theory of adult learning. Many additional authors complain that andragogy is not a theory at all, but merely a framework or set of assumptions ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emelia, 2008; McGrath, 2009; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">There are five specific criticisms of andragogy; (a) critiques of self-direction, (b) critiques regarding motivation, (c) lack of reflection, (d) lack of accounting for learning context, and (e) lack of empirical evidence. Knowles (1984) stated that adults become more self-directed as they mature and that this self-direction guides their learning. Self-direction is not unique to adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Clapper, 2010; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Cercone (2008) noted that all adults are not automatically self-directed and may require assistance to become so. Dibiase and Kidwai (2010) found that in the U.S., growth towards self-direction is inhibited by a lack of desire to accept greater responsibility for learning. These arguments are similar to critiques regarding motivation. Both Abela (2009) and McGrath (2009) bemoaned andragogy’s lack of adequate explication regarding motivation, lack of mention of extrinsic motivation, inconsistency of intrinsic motivation between adults, or exploration of the role of instructors as the chief cause of motivation in students. The rise of transformative learning and its emphasis on reflection clearly shows the need for reflection as a key component of learning, yet self-reflection is lacking in andragogy ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Abela, 2009; Blaschke, 2012; Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In andragogy, an idea is promoted suggesting that all adults, in every context, are treading a similar path and are all maturing toward a universal ideal of self-direction, self-reliance, self-fulfillment, and individualism ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Sandlin, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy does not take into account cultural characteristics ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Clapper, 2010; Donavant, 2009; Henschke, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), social privilege or oppression that impedes learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">McGrath, 2009; Sandlin, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), race, gender, or life experiences ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For many researchers, however, the most glaring criticism of andragogy is that it is more art than science ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Holton et al., 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The complaint is that the theory has become dominant in adult education despite contradictory and insufficient empirical research ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Henschke, 2011; Holton et al., 2009; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Recently, researchers have focused on the creation of a measurement instrument to empirically assess the validity of andragogical principles and process design ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11.7px;">Holton et al. 2009; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).


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