EL7006+Motivation+and+the+Adult+Learner


 * ** EL7006-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Facilitating Adult Learning Online ** || ** 3 Motivation and the Adult Learner ** ||
 * I enjoyed reading your well written and well considered paper. You visit many themes and theories that you have explored in other papers and you might want to look at some of your resources more critically. **
 * I have posed a few questions for your consideration in the comments in your paper. **
 * Watch for anthropomorphic statements and avoid absolutes in academic writing particularly when discussing contested theories, and all theories are, by definition, contested. **
 * Try to discipline yourself to stay within page limits and word limits, an essential skill for applying the NCU dissertation template. **
 * Try to discipline yourself to stay within page limits and word limits, an essential skill for applying the NCU dissertation template. **

=Motivation and the Adult Online Learner= A fundamental underlying principle to learning is constituted in the simple phrase; without motivation there can be no learning. Learning requires motivation, which can be generated from within or because of a desire for outer reward or accomplishment.* Adult learning theory places greater emphasis on internal motivation, and research corroborates this emphasis, but it is possible for learning to occur with an external impetus. The underlying trigger for motivation is the emotion of interest. Instructors may use appropriate techniques to promote greater student interest. Interest fosters attention, relevance, and self-efficacy; the sub-dimensions of motivation, which in turn increases student satisfaction and enhanced learning outcomes.

Andragogy and Motivation
Andragogy, “ the art and science of helping adults learn ” ( Blanchard, Hinchey, & Bennett, 2011, p. 2; Cercone, 2008, p. 137 ), is a foundational adult learning theory* with many supporters. The term was originally coined by Alexander Kapp in 1833, but did not find a following in the U.S. until Malcolm Knowles developed a number of tenets describing the adult learner, which have been expanded by various authors ( Watts, 2012 ). Originally touted as a complete explanation of how adults learn Knowles later acknowledged “ pedagogy and andragogy probably represent the ends of a spectrum that ranges from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. Both approaches, he and others now suggest, are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation ” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Zemke & Zemke, 1995, para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation that identifies motivation as a ratio of effort to benefit and the perception of capability to achieve ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; Ferguson & DeFelice, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The most prevalent expectancy theory is Keller’s motivation to learn model ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradford, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Keller’s (2006) model identifies three learning conditions that can optimize motivation to learn; attention, relevance, and confidence, and one targeted outcome for learning, satisfaction (Bradford, 2011). Expectancy theory has generated a number of improvements for the online classroom including Pintrich’s motivational generalizations and evidence-based instructional design principles ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Pintrich, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Learner Characteristics
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">According to andragogy,* adult learners are independent and need to understand why they need to learn something, and the benefits it will bring, before they will learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This assumption regarding adult learners is consistent with Pintrich’s (2003) second motivational generalization; to increase motivation, learners should be given opportunities to exercise some control and choice in the learning environment ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy assumes* adult learners are self-directed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and Pintrich stated that goals motivate and direct students in his fifth generalization ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), which has been demonstrated as a key for online success ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour, 2011; Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners, according to andragogy, are interested in solving problems, performing tasks, improving their lives, and are more motivated after a life-changing event that challenges them to grow and learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Cercone, 2008; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Donavant, 2009; Merriam, Cafferella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These assumptions correlate well with Pintrich’s (2003) fourth generalization; students are motivated by higher levels of value ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Albert & Johnson, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), as well as Keller’s principle of relevance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Bradford, 2011; Park & Choi, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy assumes that adult learners are more intrinsically motivated, focusing on aspirations than they are extrinsically motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri, Xaymoungkhoun, Zo, Rho, & Ciganek, 2011; Fidishun, 2011; Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Pintrich (2003)* confirms this assumption in his third generalization; motivated students have higher levels of interest and intrinsic motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The environment suggested by Pintrich is similar to that envisioned by Knowles focusing on a student-centered approach where there is mutual respect between student and teacher, and between students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Karge et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011; Pintrich, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">On the other hand, andragogy inadequately explains adult motivation by failing to address extrinsic motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Keengwe & Georgina, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), dissimilar levels of intrinsic motivation adults possess ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), interest ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007; Callens, 2011; Lee, Redmond, & Dolan, 2008; Nummenmaa & Nummenmaa, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), or the role of confidence, competence, and self-efficacy in adult learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Cornelius, Gordon, & Ackland, 2011; Muirhead, 2004 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy provides no direction for instructors or students in situations where the learner has no motivation. Even with extensive stimulation by the instructor or environment, studies confirm that without a modicum of motivation by the student, there is little participation or effective learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradford, 2011; Cacciamani, Cesareni, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Applying Motivation Theory
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learning requires “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the energy of activity. . . [directed]. . . towards a goal <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010, p. 11; see also Abela, 2009; Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) persistently ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri et al., 2011; Muilenburg & Berge, 2005; Lam & Bordia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The integration of successful behaviors with knowledge and beliefs over a period of time constitutes motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kiliç-Cakmak, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As larger, steady applications of energy and effort, or motivation, are directed toward goals, better learning* occurs ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Kalyuga, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Student motivation can be extrinsic or intrinsic ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri et al., 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008, Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research reveals that attention, confidence, and relevance are sub-dimensions that sustain and augment motivation, while satisfaction is the expected outcome* of motivated learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Bradford, 2011; Keller, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Interest appears to be the trigger or “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">energizing force <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” driving the sub-dimensions of motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b, p. 4; see also Nummenmaa & Nummenmaa, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Motivation may perpetuate and stoke itself. Bye et al. (2007) demonstrated that intrinsic motivation is associated with positive affect, promoting “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">subjective well-being in the satisfaction of basic psychological needs <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 146; see also Baskas, 2011a; Nummenmaa & Nummenmaa, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).* This increase in positive affect strengthens and enhances the self-efficacy of the learner resulting in higher levels of learning responsibility ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Muniz-Solari & Coats, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), which contributes to persistence in online programs ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bye et al., 2007; Hrastinski & Jaldemark, 2012; Lombardi, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and better learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Kalyuga, 2011; Karge et al., 2011; Simonson, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999; Taran, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Implications for Design and Delivery
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The aim of course design and development is to facilitate student engagement and motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Due to* the power of student motivation, course design and learning context are not sufficient to ensure online learning success ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Upon entering any class a student can have a wide range of possible motivations, or none at all. If there is no existing motivation, and the instructor is unable to cultivate some interest, there can be no learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradford, 2011; Cacciamani et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).* <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The majority of adult students are not self-regulated enough to sustain motivation on their own ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).* A number of relationships have been identified and demonstrated as effective in increasing both student motivation and learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In order to learn the student must spend time-on-task with the course content.* Continuous interactivity between the learner and the knowledge sources supports student motivation and is critical to better learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Hsieh & Cho, 2011; Simonson et al., 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Interactivity between online students can also increase student motivation and diminish isolation through the establishment of a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Karge et al., 2011; Omar et al., 2011; Scagnoli, Buki, & Johnson, 2009; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Aheern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Facilitating collaboration between students is a challenge for online instructors. Research has identified many factors that inhibit and encourage interaction and collaboration between students; the previous need to be avoided, while the later need to be included in the online classroom ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Swartz & Triscari, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogical teaching casts instructors into the roles of mentor, coach, or facilitator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">); providing necessary scaffolding to promote learner self-reliance, self-efficacy, and learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Nurturing instructor-student relationships increase student motivation to learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Er, Ozden, & Arifoglu, 2009; Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and maximize learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Chickering and Gamson (1987) identified frequent student-faculty contact as “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the most important factor in student motivation and involvement <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 2 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) because it is through the instructor that these other relationships are encouraged. =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Conclusion = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy identifies assumptions regarding adult learners, while expectancy theory provides a theoretical basis for the characteristics that learners need to have for motivation. Most of the assumptions of andragogy correlate with the motivational generalizations of Pintrich. Andragogy in isolation is inadequate to explain the facets of motivation. While andragogy emphasizes that adult learners are intrinsically motivated, it does not offer a rationale to explain different levels of intrinsic motivation, and fails to address extrinsic motivation completely. Furthermore, interest is the trigger for the sub-dimensions of motivation; attention, relevance, and confidence, but was not discussed by either Knowles or succeeding phase theorists. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Piquing a student’s interest and facilitating the activities, interactions, collaborations, and assessments that provides the stimulation for increasing a student’s motivation is the role of the instructor. Critical to the maintenance of motivation are the student’s relationships with the course material, with other students, and with the instructor. While the instructor can encourage these relationships, it is ultimately the learner who is either motivated enough to develop them to optimize and take responsibility for his or her own learning.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[1] Marr, A. J. (2000). Intrinsic Motivation and Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Experience: A critique of two factor theories of human motivation in social psychology. Retrieved May 16, 2008, from http://flowstate.homestead.com/files/csikszentmihalyi_four.html <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> I particularly like Csiszentmihaliyi’s flow theory because it seems to provide good explanation for some of the behavior exhibited by people learning to use technology or using technology in a purpose driven fashion. One of my favorite examples is a kid learning to play a video game. What is the motivation there? To win? As soon as they beat the game they are no longer interested. The idea that people enter into an altered state of consciousness when engaged in a task slightly beyond their present skill level seems to explain much about powerful learning experiences. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[2] One of the classic challenges to the theory of andragogy, is it a theory of learning or a theory of teaching? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[3] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Those who espouse andragogy… <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[4] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Anthropomorphic A concept such as andragogy cannot perform a human action such as assuming. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[5] How important is the “teaching context” to Pintrich’s genearlizations. Can formal education contexts be seen as the only true learning? Merriam, Cafferella, & Baumgartner, 2007 Who you have cited below also describe non-formal learning environments. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[6] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">What is the metric for better learning? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[7] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The only expected outcome? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[8] Even though learning can be driven by a deep anger, dissatisfaction and/or discontent with a present state of affairs? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[9] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Due to means caused by.[Yes, this is the message I intended to convey. Not sure what the feedback is here.] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[10] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Avoid absolutes in academic writing. [This is what my sources said, and I tend to agree. No motivation - no learning.] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[11] How confident are you in the information presented by these authors? How sound is their research? Sound enough to support a such a statement? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[12] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Again this is an unsupported absolute statement. It certainly doesn’t account for all of learning and particularly adult learning given the presence of autodidacts, informal learners and non-formal learners. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">See also for example <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Eberle, J., & Childress, M. (2009). Using heutagogy to address the needs of online learners. In P. Rogers, G. A. Berg, J. V. Boettcher, & L. Justice (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Distance Learning (Second.). Idea Group Inc (IGI). Retrieved from http://what-when-how.com/distance-learning/using-heutagogy-to-address-the-needs-of-online-learners-distance-learning/ [I agree with the feedback - but, my statement would have been more correct, and more in line with what I intended to say by leaving out the word course.] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[13] Provoker? :-) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">[14] Would you challenge this finding with evidence of deep and abiding learning in highly non-nurturing conditions. For example, in many trades and occupations a saying exists that you must “steal” your learning from someone who knows. The knowledgeable expert has no interesting sharing his/her expertise for fear of being displaced so the novice must strategize to draw out the information and wisdom. Definitely a non-nurturing environment but one that results in highly effective learning. You can bet that knowledge won in these types of circumstances is not take for granted or prized lightly. [I was concerned that the word nurturing would be emphasized here rather than the instructor-student relationship.]


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