Brief+Literature+Review


 * ** EDU7707-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Planning Dissertation Research in Education ** || ** 6 Brief Review of the Literature ** ||
 * Outstanding! Keep up the good work :-) **
 * ** Planning Dissertation Research in Education ** || ** 6 Brief Review of the Literature ** ||
 * Outstanding! Keep up the good work :-) **

=Brief Review of the Literature= The rapid advances of technology over the past decade have led to a dramatic shift in the demographics of post-secondary students, as about 40% are over the age of 25, and a majority of these more mature learners are increasingly choosing e-learning to pursue higher education ( Ke & Xie, 2009 ) and professional development ( Gunawardena, Linder-VanBerschot, LaPointe, & Rao, 2010 ). Adults, or nontraditional students, learn differently than do traditional students, or younger adults entering post-secondary education straight from secondary education ( Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007; Ke & Xie, 2009; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 ). Historically, these differences have been ignored in higher education, and in online courses, where the same pedagogies and curriculum face both the traditional and non-traditional learner ( Ke & Xie, 2009 ). There has also been little research outside of higher education regarding how mature adults learn best in a virtual classroom ( Chen & Lien, 2011; Donavant, 2009 ). In this section various adult learning theories will be expounded to create a foundation from which to address research findings on the optimal ways that adults learn online, along with characteristics that detract from online learning. With a grasp on the characteristics that enhance adult learning, various means of measuring learning will be identified and expanded upon, which will help identify factors contributing to learning.

Adult Learning Theories
There are dozens of learning theories that provide a rich foundation for understanding the complexity of learning and teaching ( Minter, 2011 ). These theories often have common characteristics, have strengths and shortcomings, and have their supporters and detractors. Many of these theories do not differentiate between teaching adults and teaching children, or are not applicable to adult learners ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When working with the adult learner the underlying premise of these theories is adults learn in a different way; therefore teachers of adults need to use different instructional methods ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Minter, 2011; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For this reason many authors differentiate the term andragogy to identify the methods of teaching adult learners, and pedagogy to identify the methods of teaching children ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Commonwealth of Learning, 2000; Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy, “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the art and science of helping adults learn <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard, Hinchey, & Bennett, 2011, p. 2; Cercone, 2008, p. 137 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), is a foundational theory that has many supporters. The term was originally coined by Alexander Kapp in 1833 and philosophically flows from Plato’s theory regarding education ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Malcolm Knowles was the leading proponent of andragogy in the U.S. and developed a number of tenets describing the adult learner, and these have been expanded by various authors. Although originally touted as a complete explanation of how adults learn, Knowles later acknowledged “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">pedagogy and andragogy probably represent the ends of a spectrum that ranges from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. Both approaches, he and others now suggest, are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Zemke & Zemke, 1995, para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The main principles of andragogy include: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">There are numerous arguments, discussions, principles propounded regarding adult learning theory and there is still no single unified model, theory, or set of principles all subscribe to ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The principles of andragogy are accepted by most educators of adults as foundational even though it is acknowledged several factors important to the teaching of adults are not included or emphasized ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Donavant, 2009; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another popular theory in the literature professes adults have certain preferred learning styles, and this predilection dictates certain behaviors; among these behaviors are an inclination for receiving instruction in certain ways ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Kozub, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), which acts as a predictor of performance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Huang, Lin, & Huang, 2012; Kozub, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Whereas the research results regarding learning styles is mixed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), it does underscore adults learn differently.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are independent and will not necessarily learn what they are told but need to understand why they need to learn something and the benefits it will bring ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more self-directed and need to have control over their learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners have a varied and rich experience base, as well as different learning styles and motivators. Adult learners want to be acknowledged for and have their experiences used in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are more motivated to learn when a challenge enters their life; encouraging them to discover how to handle better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Donavant, 2009; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are interested in learning how to solve problems, perform tasks, or improve their life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more intrinsically motivated, focusing on aspirations than extrinsically motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Donavant, 2009; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners expect a student-centered approach to learning in an environment of mutual respect between teacher and student, and between students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Karge et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

Adult E-Learning
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The literature consistently identifies six characteristics contributing to optimal e-learning for adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These six characteristics include (a) a strong student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010; Simonson, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) student-student interaction and collaboration ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; Pelz, 2010; McGlone, 2011; Sinclair, 2009; Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) reflection by the learner to tie new learning to existing experience ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Cacciamani, Cesareni, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012; Cercone, 2008; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) development of a sense of community among participants ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, 2007; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) immediate real world application of learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Blanchard et al., 2011; Ke & Xie, 2009; Segrave & Holt, 2003; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) student motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Baskas, 2011b; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research demonstrates that as these characteristics are included and emphasized in online learning the performance of adult learner’s increases, as does their participation, and satisfaction. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Success in distance education has many factors, but key to learning for the student is development of the student-instructor relationship ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Simonson et al., 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and the instructor’s level of interaction with the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Jackson et al., 2010; Martinez-Caro, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Chyung and Vachon (2005) identified that four of the seven most significant factors contributing to a learner’s satisfaction were directly related to an instructor’s skills or their interaction with the student. The supportive and nurturing relationship of learner and instructor increases learner satisfaction with online courses ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Shea, Fredericksen, & Pickett, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), improves motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and optimized learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Regarding the second critical success factor in e-learning, Boling et al. (2011) argued today’s technology requires a shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered paradigm, which relegates the instructor to the role of mentor, guide, coach, or facilitator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Cabrera-Lozoya, Cerdan, Cano, Garcia-Sanchez, & Lujan, 2012; Oncu & Cakir, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). One of the most important factors in successfully facilitating online is projecting teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Archambault, Wetzel, Fouger, & Williams, 2010; Bradley, 2009; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">); the ability to connect with students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and encourage them and provide the necessary scaffolding to promote learning and self-reliance in the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Anderson, 2008; Cacciamani et al., 2012; Cercone, 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) while staying in the background as much as possible ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009; Ke, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When transitioning from the traditional classroom to online, mastering facilitation can be a great challenge for the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009; Jackson et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and can be the key to success or failure ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Lombardi, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As teaching presence increases, so does student satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donovant, 2009; Ferguson & DeFelice, 2010; Gunawardena et al., 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), engagement ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke & Hoadley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and accomplishments ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) as students actively participate in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another key element to successful learning is self-reflection by the learner, which engenders deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Ke & Xie, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), high-quality learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), meta-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and metacognitive expertise ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cacciamani et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Reflection also allows learners to examine their biases ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), other perspectives ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) so they can internalize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), contextualize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009; Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and transform experience and knowledge into learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Chan Mow, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while boosting motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Baskas, 2011a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and promoting higher order learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Taran, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Studies demonstrate reflection is a key online design dimension ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Ke, 2010; Yang & Cornelius, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and students seem to prefer e-learning because of their ability to reflect before engaging in discussions ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Ke & Hoadley, 2009; Martinez-Caro, 2011; Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A sense of community is vital for successful online learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Boling et al., 2011; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). It is the role of the instructor to lead community-building activities ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Muirhead, 2004 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and his or her example is key to the establishment of a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Ambrose & Ogilvie, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) through accurate and timely feedback ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2008; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), encouragement of participation and interaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling et al., 2011; Cornelius, Gordon, & Ackland, 2011; Yang & Cornelius, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), nurturing caring and healthy relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Caine, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and modeling effective and open communication ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Desai et al., 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). When students feel a sense of belonging to a community and care for other members of the group significant benefits have been noted. The benefits to students are they (a) bond earlier and better than in traditional classrooms ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) engage in more reflective thinking ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) better understand the material ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) are more motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and satisfied ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) persist with their studies ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) learn more ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling et al., 2011; Fahy, 2008; Moisey & Hughes, 2008; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">An additional factor to successful online courses is addressing real-world applications. According to andragogy, students are more interested in immediate problem-centered approaches to learning, so learning can improve their work, family, or personal life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). By encouraging students to bring their experience and problems into the classroom learners are able to construct deeper and more robust knowledge, while expanding their abilities to handle actual problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen et al., 2009; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This application of real-world learning is a motivator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and enriches learning. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The final factor mentioned regularly in the literature is the need for students to be motivated. Motivation has been demonstrated to significantly increase in students because of good student-instructor relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Lam & Bordia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), strong teaching presence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Diaz & Entonado, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having a sense of community ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), participating or collaborating in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Omar et al., 2011; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), being encouraged to reflect on new learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), having material clearly presented ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Alshare, Freeze, Lane, & Wen, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and working through real-world problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Though student motivation is assumed to be a major factor of adult learning, Kiliç-Cakmak (2010) identified that “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">little or no attention [has been] paid to presentation methods that influence <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 195 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) motivation. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">As each of these factors is present in an online course it is important to be able to verify their effects on students. Verification comes in the form of measurement. Measurement of adult learning takes many forms, which will be discussed next.

Measuring Adult Learning
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Learning is a subjective and deeply personal experience. Correlations have been made between measures of perceived learning and other factors to make it possible to determine how well an instructor has performed even in situations where students do not necessarily receive grades. The most common methods of determining the amount of learning that has taken place in a class are through measuring performance or satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Martinez-Caro, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Recently, structural equation modeling (SEM) has been used to estimate “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 576 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) to identify how various factors affecting learning work together ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Martinez-Caro, 2009; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Performance is usually measured in terms of quantitative assessments. Teachers attempt to determine the level and amount of learning through tests, quizzes, and papers, and generally apportion grades in accordance with some rubric identifying how well they believe a student has learned specific material. Performance as measured by grades is highly dependent on several factors independent of learning, e.g., writing skills, class participation, prior knowledge, or grading inconsistency ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Martinez-Caro, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In professional development courses grades are not usually given, so learning of the student generally comes from self-report data of how much knowledge or skill the learner believes he or she acquired ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donavant, 2009; Gunawardena et al., 2010; Martinez-Caro, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Another means of determining learning in adults is through their satisfaction with a course. Martinez-Caro’s (2009) SEM analysis demonstrated there is a strong positive correlation between a student’s perceived learning and his or her satisfaction, r = .73 ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 577 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Several other authors have used learner satisfaction as the appropriate measure of effectiveness of learning in online courses ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Gunawardena et al., 2010; Kozub, 2010; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This precedent means that under proper circumstances evaluation of a student’s satisfaction can be an effective means of determining the effectiveness of the instruction and of the learning.

E-Learning Factors
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Numerous studies have been conducted to determine which factors affect effective e-learning. As more learners participate in an online class the higher their satisfaction and the more they learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Huang et al., 2012; Gunawardena et al., 2010; Watkins, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Several studies have found one of the most important factors regarding performance and satisfaction is the amount of interaction between the student and the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Gunawardena et al, 2010; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). One study found “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">interaction is key to effective e-learning, with teacher-student interaction the strongest predictor of learning in e-learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Martinez-Caro, 2009, p. 578 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As mentioned previously, the interactions and collaboration between learners weigh heavily on the satisfaction of the student ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Ke & Xie, 2009; Martinez‐Caro, 2009; McGlone, 2011; Sinclair, 2009; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), with one study showing it is “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the highest predictor of transfer of learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Gunawardena et al, 2010, p. 223 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The convenience and flexibility of the online experience rank highly in factors adding to learner satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donavant, 2009; Ismail, Gunasegaran, & Idrus, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Chyung and Vachon (2005) identified factors for dissatisfaction with e-learning, and recognized that satisfaction is not the inverse of dissatisfaction, and vice versa. Their study showed because students are not satisfied does not automatically mean they are dissatisfied; conversely just because students are not dissatisfied does not mean they are satisfied. For this reason they suggested factors contributing to both should be identified, and those tending toward satisfaction should be maintained or added, and those causing dissatisfaction should be eliminated or reduced. In this vein, the number one perceived disadvantage of e-learning by new students is the lack of face-to-face interaction between the student and instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donavant, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and the most significant factors contributing to learner dissatisfaction in e-learning courses is a perceived lack in (a) the instructors participation level, (b) the instructors feedback and responsiveness, and (c) the instructor’s giving of clear directions and setting of expectations ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Chyung & Vachon, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

Summary
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Outside of higher education there is little research in the area of adult education, and even within higher education very little research has sought to distinguish the characteristics, traits, and proclivities of the non-traditional student. Andragogy provides seven assumptions pertaining to the adult learner, but fails to mention or expand on several factors important to learning. The most common factors mentioned in the literature for successful adult online learning are (a) the need for a rich and engaging student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor, (b) collaboration between students, (c) reflection by the student to meld new knowledge with past knowledge and experience, (d) building a sense of community between the participants of an online class, (e) the application of knowledge to immediate, real-world problems, and (f) the need to enhance student motivation. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">To determine if a treatment is successful it is necessary to accurately measure whether learning has occurred. Because learning is an internal process is not usually visible to the outward observer several elements have been researched to determine how well they measure actual learning, and self-reported satisfaction of the learner has been demonstrated to correlate closely with other factors representative of adult learning. Many satisfiers have been verified through research such as participation, interaction between student and instructor, and between students, and convenience, but the main dissatisfier in online classes remains the lack of face-to-face interaction between learner and instructor.


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