EL7001+Digital+Divide


 * ** EL7001-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Principals and Practices in e-Learning ** || ** 5 The Digital Divide ** ||
 * Excellent work Stephen! Well organized and well presented. **
 * Excellent work Stephen! Well organized and well presented. **

=The Digital Divide * = Through the early part of the first decade of the twenty-first century educational researchers have lamented that advances in technology have enabled, empowered and advantaged some students because of their access to online knowledge, education and technology at the expense of those who do not have such access. More recent articles identify that it is not a matter of access, but a matter of the skills that a student uses in accessing the Internet that perpetuates the divide even as the access gap is closed. The purpose of this paper is to discuss five current potential issues contributing to the digital divide, how these issues impact e-learning, and strategies to overcome each issue with appropriate research and documentation.

The Issues
In many parts of the world, access to the Internet either at home, at school, or a digital café is universal. Access to the Internet and the knowledge and education that can go with that access, however, does not mean that each individual knows how or wants to benefit from that access. Van Dijk (2005) suggests four steps of technological acceptance, which he terms as various levels of access, which results in users being able to benefit educationally from technology – what Whelan (2008) defines as e-readiness. These four steps include (a) the motivation to use technology, (b) reasonable access to technology, (c) the skills to use the technology and understand the content, and (d) using the technology to become better educated. Van Dijk’s model of access is similar in context to Muilenburg and Berge’s (2005) eight barriers to online learning. Although Muilenburg and Berge did not address the digital divide directly many factors that prevent learners from benefiting from the use of advanced technology also contribute to the divide. The literature identifies numerous obstructions for large swaths of people to gain from the use of technology. The five contributors to the digital divide that are discussed in this paper are learner motivation, cost and access to the Internet, technical skills, academic skills, and administrative issues. Although these do not constitute all of the impediments that compose the digital divide, several articles indicate that these are currently the most important.

Learner Motivation
In the U.S. twenty-four percent of adults “ have no direct or indirect experience with the Internet ” ( Haythornthwaite, 2007, p. 112 ) seeing no benefit in using it. These “ truly unconnected ” ( p. 112 ) individuals have by-and-large lower incomes, are older, and have less education than individuals who are connected. With this many unconnected individuals in places where connectivity is all but ubiquitous, what of other places, where physical access is much harder to come by? A person who chooses to not access the Internet because they see no value in doing so is no better than someone who cannot, and as a group the very people who could benefit the most from the skills and education that comes with technology are the group least likely to take advantage of it. Several articles show that the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged groups is growing rather than shrinking ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Beaudoin, 2007; Haythornthwaite, 2007; Journell, 2007; Rye 2008; van Dijk, 2005; Whelan, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Until an individual is able to catch a glimpse of their own ignorance, they are unlikely to be motivated to rectify it. Despite the studies that show that information and communications technology (ICT) raises the overall standard of living in countries and regions where it is implemented (Rye, 2008), only those who see the advantage will realize the benefit. Other studies show that in education access to computers promotes substantial “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">improvement in cognitive development <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Journell, 2007, p. 142 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), higher testing scores in reading, math and social studies, lower dropout and failure rates, and “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">enhance instruction to the point that students may become enamored with learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 143 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For e-learning the major advantage is the ability to increase knowledge and skills anywhere at a time of the learner’s choosing, but to receive that benefit the learner has to be motivated to take the course, and then stick with it regardless of hardship. This means that the learner will have to have a certain amount of self-discipline and take responsibility for their learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Muilenburg & Berge, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The biggest impact that lack of motivation can have on e-learning is that without experience it is difficult to encourage learners to try it, so they will never know the gain that can come to them if they do ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Muilenburg & Berge, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). A secondary impact on e-learning is that if learners do try e-learning it is important that the experience be a positive one, or they will be unlikely to want to take another e-learning class ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Rye, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">To encourage disadvantaged learners to participate in e-learning it is important to market to non-traditional students with classes (preferably free) that will help build a set of skills that build competence not only in themselves, but in the use of the technology whereby they are learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Haythornthwaite, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Learners must understand that there are benefits accruing to them beyond the specific learning taking place ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Rye, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Perez (2007) found that if students are sufficiently motivated they will seek out equipment and a connection in order to participate in online courses. It is important that the instructors of these courses create appropriately interactive activities that will foster comprehension in the learner, and resolve misconceptions, and encourage interaction between participants to overcome any feelings of isolation that learners may suffer from e-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Perez, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Cost and Access to the Internet
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">According to Muilenburg and Berge’s (2005) factor analysis on the barriers to e-learning, the sixth most impactful factor is the cost of accessing, and the lack of access to the Internet or appropriate technology. Journell (2007) identified inadequate technology as “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the predominant reason why students fail to meet federal standards <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 145 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Beaudoin (2007) added that in poorer countries educational consumers and providers “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">lack affordable computers, reliable internet connections, and access to online scholarly material <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 443 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), but as mentioned above a large percentage of the adult population in the U.S. choose not to have access, and even in elementary and secondary schools those with the poorest students lag far behind in access and quality of equipment than those with more affluent students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Haythornthwaite, 2007; Maeroff, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The impact that lack of adequate hardware and software to engage in e-learning, or of a connection was best demonstrated by Rye’s (2008) study in Indonesia. While students in a remote district were motivated to participate in e-learning, he found that “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">their negative experiences did not encourage them to continue using it <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 177 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), partly because of “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the expenses incurred by using the Internet <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 177 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) but also because “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">some of the students had to travel for approximately 3 h[rs]. to reach an Internet café <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” (p. 177). He concluded that: * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">for most students it is not about being online or not, but rather about the quality of the connection and how they are able to use it, and in the end, to what extent it contributes to higher education participation. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 174 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">To overcome this factor of the digital divide several authors identified that governmental policy has to change to focus on providing access to the less advantaged ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Beaudoin, 2007; Journell, 2007; Rye, 2008; Whalen, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Community technology centers are suggested by Journell (2007) as a means of encouraging the disadvantaged to have a centralized and safe place to learn the skills necessary for the jobs of tomorrow. Whalen (2008) encourages government to partner with business to provide “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">free or low-cost access to the Internet and computing equipment <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 62 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">access to all schools, ideally at broadband speeds <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 62, emphasis in original <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) for free or low cost. Several authors noted that schools are more likely to be able to provide computer and information literacy training to the disadvantaged ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Haythornthwaite, 2007; Whalen, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) so policies that encourage the upkeep and maintenance of technological resources in schools should be encouraged.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Technical Skills
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A significant barrier to online learning is the lack of skills necessary to run the hardware and software required to access the Internet, and unfamiliarity or even fear of computers and technological tools ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Muilenburg & Berge, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For Journell (2007) the central issue of the digital divide is digital illiteracy. He also found that lower socioeconomic groups tend to use computers more rudimentarily than do more prosperous groups. In Indonesia Rye (2008) found that the urban group had a positive attitude about engaging in e-learning because all of the “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">students were already familiar with the use of new technology, even though none of them had used it for educational purposes before <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 179 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while those in the remote district, even when they could get access “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">most of them faced a new problem, namely lack of necessary skills <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 177 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Using the Internet effectively is a set of higher order cognitive skills that takes learning and practice. Those who do not acquire these skills will not be available for jobs that require the use of technology, and are unlikely to seek out knowledge through e-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Maeroff, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). For instructors who need to design interactive and engaging learning for e-learning there is the need for sophisticated technical knowledge and skills, and without these skills students may become less motivated because of unchallenging, boring, or non-interactive material. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Research findings on disadvantaged youth that are provided equipment and trained in its use show that they “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">will constructively use technology if provided with correct habits, both at home and school <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Journell, 2007, p. 141 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Whalen (2008) suggests that an interface that is simple and intuitive should be used for e-learning to minimize the learning curve of e-learning students. He also identified that curriculum designers and teachers be trained sufficiently to create and present material that is engaging, interactive, and motivating.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Academic Skills
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The lack of skill in writing, reading, communication, typing, or language has a major impact on any kind of learning including online learning, and can be a huge barrier to learners in an e-learning program ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Muilenburg & Berge, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Much of e-learning requires the ability to use these skills, but has also been identified as “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the best chance for students to succeed despite geographical and socioeconomic limitations <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Journell, 2007, p. 145 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Administrative Issues
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">According to Muilenburg and Berge (2005) one of the largest barriers to online education derives from a combination of issues such as lack (a) of instructor skills, (b) of timely feedback in e-learning courses, and (c) of clear instructions and deadlines. This contributes to the digital divide because the best qualified and trained teachers inherently go to schools with better resources, while the least qualified and trained teachers often teach the less advantaged <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">(Journell, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Maeroff (2003) also notes that schools do not generally provide technical training as part of professional development programs meaning that teachers can quickly become outdated. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Attitude toward technology seems to be one of the largest motivators for e-learning. Quality of technical education encourages this attitude in learners. It is imperative that all teachers of technical courses engage their students and encourage the skills discussed throughout this paper. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Educators and administrators need to understand that providing the equipment and the connectivity is only a small step in a complex process to nurture the abilities and knowledge and talent of learners ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Beaudoin, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) in which “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">innovative instructional design is. . . the key force of change and improvement in teaching and learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Whalen, 2008, p. 67 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Journell (2007) suggests that teachers must be trained in “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">effective e-learning instruction strategies <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">(p.146 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) at all levels and stages in their professional development. While Haythornthwaite (2007) cautions against creating courses that accommodate the least common denominator, stating that in doing so it works “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">against some of the key benefits of e-learning, i.e., interactivity with peers, real-time exchanges, as well as training in the more technically sophisticated areas <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 113 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Conclusion = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The barriers to online learning are many and varied, and some of these barriers contribute to a growing divide between the technological savvy and the disadvantaged or uninitiated. This paper discussed five current issues contributing to the digital divide, and commented on their impact on e-learning and possible solutions derived from the literature.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> [scl1] Do not use bold on the title. See fig. 2.1 on p. 42 of APA 6th edition. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> [scl2] You may want to use a colon so your readers will know this is a block quote <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> [scl3] Very nice!


 * = References ||
 * * Beaudoin, M. F. (2007). Dissecting the African digital divide: Diffusing e-learning in sub-Saharan Africa, E-Learning and Digital Media, 4(4), 442-453. doi:10.2304/elea.2007.4.4.442
 * Haythornthwaite, C. (2007). Digital divide and e-learning. In R. Andrews, & C. Haythornthwaite (eds.), //The SAGE handbook of e-learning research// (pp. 98-119). Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
 * Journell, W. (2007). The inequities of the digital divide: Is e-learning a solution? //E-Learning and Digital Media, 4(2)//, 138-149. doi:10.2304/elea.2007.4.2.138
 * Maeroff, G. I. (2003). //A classroom of one: How online learning is changing our schools and colleges//. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
 * Muilenburg, L. Y., & Berge, Z. L. (2005). Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study. //Distance Education, 26(1)//, 29-48. doi:10.1080/01587910500081269
 * Perez, E. V., & Perez, M. J. V. (2007). E-learning university networks: An approach to a quality open education. //Journal of Cases on Information Technology, 9(2)//, 12-25. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/192332629/fulltextPDF?accountid=28180
 * Rye, S. (2008). Exploring the gap of the digital divide: Conditions of connectivity and higher education participation. //GeoJournal, 71(2-3)//, 171-184. doi:10.1007/s10708-008-9154-8
 * van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2005). //The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society//. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
 * Whelan, R. (2008). Use of ICT in education in the South Pacific: Findings of the Pacific e-Learning Observatory. //Distance Education, 29(1)//, 53-70. doi:10.1080/01587910802004845 ||