EL7006+Adult+Learning+Principles


 * ** EL7006-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Facilitating Adult Learning Online ** || ** 8 Adult Learning Principles ** ||
 * Excellent work on this, Stephen. **
 * Your well supported critical analysis is the type of scholarly approach that you should get in the habit of applying to all topics and issues as you continue in your doctoral studies. **
 * All the best. **
 * All the best. **

=Knowles’ Andragogical Model and Learning= There was a time when teaching was teaching, learning was learning, and it was all pedagogical. A pioneer arose inciting a profession, attaching a label and a few assumptions to a concept that should have been obvious, but until then had been noticed by only a few. This concept is that children and adults are different; they have different experience bases, have different learning needs, and have different faculties and resources. The label granted to this shift from the teaching of children to the teaching of adults was andragogy. Andragogy has a past, prior to its popularity. Andragogy is based on assumptions regarding adult learners. Andragogy is the foundation for several extension theories of adult learning and teaching. Andragogy has many proponents, but the lack of empirical validation for its assumptions is troubling to many, and criticisms have been leveled. These criticisms have led to querying whether andragogy is a theory of adult learning at all.

Andragogy’s Past
Andragogy is “ the art and science of helping adults learn ” ( Blanchard, Hinchey, & Bennett, 2011, p. 2; Clapper, 2010, pp. e7-e8; Henschke, 2011, p. 34 ), has many supporters and critics, and identifies foundational concepts for the teaching of modern adults. The term was originally coined by Alexander Kapp in 1833 ( Abela, 2009; Fidishun, 2011; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005 ) and philosophically flows from Plato’s theory regarding educating young adults ( Abela, 2009 ). The term, however, remained dormant until revived by Eugen Rosenback in the early twentieth century when education of adults came in vogue ( Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In the U.S., Malcolm Knowles was the leading proponent of andragogy and built on the foundations of organizational development theory; most notably the work of Edward Thorndike and Eduard Lindeman ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008; Hoadley, 2007; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Lindeman mentioned andragogy but was more interested in the practical application of adult learning theory; experience-focused learning to make adult education more efficient ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Donavant, 2009; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Thorndike focused on adult learning experimentation positing that variations and differences between people require differences in delivery and that learning occurs from the consequences of stimulus ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Westera, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In 1967 Knowles was enlightened by Dusan Savicevic that his educational practice was called andragogy ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011; Henschke, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The educational community in the U.S. popularized the term after Knowles (1970) book, //The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy//. Ultimately Knowles formulated six assumptions regarding the adult learner that were to be used to inform teaching practice.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Knowles’ Six Assumptions and One Upshot
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Knowles (1984) identified six main tenets or assumptions regarding the adult learner in his theory of andragogy; focusing on what he perceived as the significant differences between how children and adults learn. Originally, Knowles touted andragogy as a complete theory for the teaching of adults and he had many supporters then and now. The assumptions are; (a) adults should have the reason for learning clearly explained to them upfront, (b) adults self-perceptions are shaped by the way they are treated, (c) adults should be encouraged to share their experiences to amplify their learning, (d) adults are motivated to learn, (e) real-world contexts optimize adult learning, and (f) adult motivation to learn increases as the learning is made relevant. An upshot of these six assumptions, identified by a number of authors, is that adults require a safe non-threatening environment to learn the best ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Gunawardena, Linder-VanBerschot, LaPoint, & Rao, 2010; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The Need to Know
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are independent and will not necessarily learn what they are told but need to understand why they need to learn something and the benefits it will bring ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Winerman, 2011; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Teachers should present the objectives of the learning before or at the beginning of a course and encourage students to evaluate the benefits of learning versus the disadvantages of not learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kistler, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). It is beneficial to ask students what they expect to get from a course, and then use that information to tailor the concepts to the expectations expressed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Facilitators can do this through simulations and activities that increase interest and help students become aware of their lack of knowledge. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Supporting and criticizing the need to know.** The emotion of interest appears to be the trigger that increases adult students’ motivation to learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Nummenmaa & Nummenmaa, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research shows that the sub-dimensions of motivation are attention, confidence, and relevance ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Bradford, 2011; Keller, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). By focusing on students need to know and engaging learners in interactions and relevant activities instructors can raise interest in and motivation for learning the subject. In my experience students do not always attend class at their own behest. In such situations, many students are resistant and even belligerent toward learning and in their interactions. This is consistent with Knowles’ assumptions that resentment and resistance is the result of forced learning. Online learners demonstrate this same need ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Gibbons & Wentworth, 2001; Kiliç-Cakmak, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). McGrath (2009) identified that most adult students in higher education understand the reality of educational standards, credentialing bodies, and the constraints of time and will take the appropriate classes and perform the necessary assignments to achieve their goals regardless of apparent relevancy to their learning purposes. Research suggests that adults will devote considerable time and resources to learning material they consider valuable ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Knowles, 1984; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Self-Concept
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more self-directed and need to have control over their learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Learners expect to be treated with respect, and resent when others attempt to impose their own will on them ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Teachers should seek to encourage self-direction by formulating conditions and experiences in the classroom that minimize dependency and foster the students’ ability to make decisions and take charge ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kistler, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). According to some, learners should be actively involved in planning their own learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Keengwe & Georgina, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) while teachers should act as facilitators instead of dispensers ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Galbraith & Fouch, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These strategies help the student become more self-directed and shed his or her dependency on the instructor; learning how to learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Supporting the assumption of self-concept.** The theory of self-directed learning springs from Knowles, and specifies that learning should be learner-directed, and may or may not be formal. Self-directed learning and andragogy assume that as people mature their self-concepts transform from dependence on others to increasing degrees of self-direction. Self-direction results in individuals who take responsibility, are autonomous, and goal-oriented. Traditional classroom settings tend to pull students into a dependent role because of operant conditioning, but the online classroom can provide a different experience if the instructor encourages self-directed activities and expectations ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kistler, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Disputing the assumption of self-concept.** A criticism of andragogy with regards to self-direction is whether all cultures incline toward self-direction and the development of an individualized self-concept ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Merriam et al., 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Instructors of adult students know that every student is not confident and self-efficacious. Many students, regardless of maturity or experience are anxious, self-conscious, and have low self-esteem ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">McGrath, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This is not supportive of andragogy’s enumerated assumptions.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Experience
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners have a varied and rich experience base, as well as different learning styles and motivators. Adult learners want to be acknowledged for and have their experiences used in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 011; Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The inclusion of these experiences can enrich learning in the classroom. Consistent with this view, extended theories like constructivism or problem-based learning suggest that a key ingredient in successful adult online learning is collaboration and student-student interaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Keengwe & Gerogina, 2012; Pelz, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Benefits of utilizing adult experience.** Teachers must design activities to draw on the resources of class members and encourage them in becoming active rather than passive learners. Though problem solving, simulations, group discussions, and case studies the existing experience of adult students can be drawn on and used to enhance the learning experience of all students in a class ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kistler, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The constructivist and heutagogical views posit that collaborative exploration, interactive problem-solving, and group knowledge construction produce better understanding and learning outcomes for students than does traditional passive learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen et al., 2009; Blaschke, 2012; Cabrera-Lozoya,Cerdan, Cano, Garcia-Sanchez, & Lujan, 2012; Chen & Lien, 2011; Hurtado & Guerrero, 2009; Tapscott & Williams, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Negatives of utilizing adult experience.** Kistler (2011) identified three challenges of utilizing student experience in the classroom. He suggested that techniques and methods should be individualized due to the enormous differences among learners. It is the adult’s experience that forms their self-concept and care should be used to neither ignore nor devalue these experiences. Further, a student’s experience is just as likely to close their minds to new interpretations or nuances, and the teacher needs to encourage students to reflect and examine their mental models. Liu, Liu, Lee, and Magjuka (2010) cited numerous studies showing differing cultures have dissimilar reactions and desires for interaction in online classes indicating that this assumption may not be universal among all human adults.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Motivation to Learn
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more intrinsically motivated, focusing on aspirations than extrinsically motivated, encouraged by rewards or punishment ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Donavant, 2009; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Pintrich (2003) confirmed that motivated students have higher levels of interest and intrinsic motivation. Through proper course design and development, student engagement and motivation can be enhanced ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">, but course design alone is not sufficient to ensure online learning success <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;"> (Bhuasiri, Xaymoungkhoun, Zo, Rho, & Ciganek, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Supporting and criticizing Knowles’ idea of motivation. **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Bye, Pushkar, & Conway (2007) discovered that when adults have competing demands on their time, if teachers minimize extrinsic pressure while promoting interest and curiosity, students motivation and positive affect increase, resulting in positive growth.Motivation is a critical factor of adult learning. Motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri et al., 2011; Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Knowles’ assumed that adult learners are intrinsically motivated, and did not mention extrinsic motivation at all. All adults are not equally motivated ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Lam and Bordia (2008) identified that some students lack motivation, which can hamper their e-learning experience, which is not supportive of the assumptions identified by andragogy.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Orientation to Learn
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are more motivated to learn when a challenge enters their life; encouraging them to discover how to handle it better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011; Donavant, 2009; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). As adults seek to move forward in their careers, advance personally or professionally, or develop new skills or talents they may seek informal or formal training. By focusing on the practical and setting objectives or goals with students upfront, learners will be able to apply the lessons to their immediate situation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Galbraith & Fouch, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). A criticism of andragogy regarding students learning orientation is that it does not differentiate between learning contexts or the uniqueness of each learner, attempting to squeeze each learner into the same mold ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Readiness to Learn
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are interested in learning how to solve problems, perform tasks, or improve their life in ways relevant to their social roles ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). This assumption conveys the idea that education “focus on relating theory to practice, and. . . make learning experiences more relevant and authentic for the learners” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Keengwe & Georgina, 2012, p. 369 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Clapper (2010) cites several studies regarding participation linking social roles and responsibilities to active participation in the classroom. Adults prefer learning that stimulates thinking, is realistic and engaging, and somewhat challenging ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Learning Environment
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners expect a student-centered approach to learning in an environment of mutual respect between teacher and student, and between students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy suggests that learning is learner-centered with the teacher acting more as a mentor, guide, and facilitator of learning rather than as dispenser of knowledge ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). By providing only necessary scaffolding, support, and encouragement, the teacher promotes learning and increased self-concept and self-efficacy within the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), greater satisfaction with online courses ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010; Shea, Fredericksen, & Pickett, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), magnified motivation to learn ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Al-Fahad, 2010; Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour; Park & Choi, 2009; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and optimal learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Martinez-Caro, 2011; Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Creating an environment that engenders these benefits requires three critical principles; needs assessment, safety, and sound relationships ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Galbraith & Fouch, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Through collaboration with the instructor, the learner should identify and form the content that is most applicable and relevant to their needs. The learner and the instructor need to work to foster a relationship where trust, competence, and dialog are encouraged. Finally, learning requires and is based on relationships that must be nurtured.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Theory or Framework
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy has few studies empirically validating its assumptions ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Henschke, 2011; Merriam, Cafferella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). It is through empirical analysis that justification and the development and advancement of specific principals of optimized implementation regarding a theory can be determined ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Tolutiene & Domarkiene, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Due to the dearth of empirical justification for andragogy several authors have questioned its status as both a theory ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Grace, 2001; Sandlin, 2005; Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">established doctrine in adult education <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Henschke, 2011, p. 34 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Mintor (2011) summarized that no adult learning theory has sufficient empirical evidence to be accepted and generalized by educators, while Taylor and Kroth (2009) summarized andragogical critiques simply; “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">it lacks the fundamental characteristics of a science because it cannot be measured. . . . The anecdotal evidence far outweighs the experimental evidence <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 7 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Regarding whether andragogy qualifies as a theory, Pratt (1993) acknowledged that andragogy has made a significant contribution to the field of adult learning, but denies that it meets the criteria for a theory because “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">it has done little to expand or clarify our understanding of the process of learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 21 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). A prevalent criticism of andragogy is that all adults learn in the same manner, regardless of culture or context ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Clapper, 2010; Gorges & Kandler, 2012; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). If a hypothesis is proposed in research but the findings are unable to increase predictive validity, it indicates low construct validity; the measures do not measure what the researcher hoped it would ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cozby & Bates, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). So, if adult learners may or may not be described by the assumptions of andragogy, depending on context, and children may have some or all of these selfsame characteristics, what is left to base a hypothesis (or a theory) on? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Abela (2009) found that while the assumptions of andragogy are beneficial as a framework for working with mature students, he also determined that several critical factors for effective learning were only briefly alluded to, like motivation, or completely missing. Andragogy does not adequately address reflection ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) although it has been shown through research to stimulate metacognitive expertise (C <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">acciamani, Cesarini, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), meta-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011; Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), high-quality learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blaschke, 2012; Ke, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Clapper, 2010; Ke & Xie, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">In answer to his critics, Knowles ultimately declared that andragogy represents “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">a model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Knowles, 1989, p. 112 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), that the assumptions are not exclusive to adults, and are often situation specific ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Clapper, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). He also acknowledged that “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">pedagogy and andragogy probably represent the ends of a spectrum that ranges from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. Both approaches, he and others now suggest, are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Zemke & Zemke, 1995, para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Whether andragogy is a theory for adult learning, or a theory of teaching, or simply a frame waiting for a theoretical canvas, it is the principal origination for many novice teachers of adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">McGrath, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). In the beginning Knowles work galvanized adult educators, giving them new concepts to discuss and a name by which the discussion could proceed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Taylor & Kroth, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Ultimately, however, no one has stepped forward to take up the yoke of furthering the assumptions propounded in andragogy so that it can assume a position as the theory of adult learning, or not. =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Conclusion = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy in its present form has engaged the minds and hearts of educators for over 40 years. Many authors have identified its assumptions as the theoretical framework of their research, literature reviews, meta-analyses, and presentations. Though there are valid criticisms to several of the assumptions, few educators appear to deny them. The major criticism of andragogy is that it does not inform practice, nor does it inform research. Over the decades andragogy has proven difficult to operationally define, so that its principles and assumptions can be measured, validated, and corroborated. It stands today in much the same position it did 40 years ago; a strong, intuitive, and anecdotal assertion that this is what adult students are like, with little empirical or experimental validation to help advance it beyond its original explication.


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