EDU7002+Fundamentals+of+Research


 * ** EDU7002-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Educational Research Methodology ** || ** 1 Fundamentals of Research ** ||
 * Very nice job Stephen! Please see comments and integrate into future papers. Excellent job especially for a first assignment. **
 * Stephen – this is perfect! **
 * Stephen – this is perfect! **

=Fundamentals of Research = The purpose of academic research is to bring clarity and lucidity to a phenomena or situation that has unanswered questions and unresolved problems. Research* is the process by which a single unanswered question, or unresolved problem is articulated and broken into logical steps with tentative solutions propounded before conducting experiments to gather data that can be interpreted in light of the question and possible solutions. Each of the elements of academic research requires logic or critical thinking to cull the important from the extraneous, and ensure that the derived answer is directly tied to the question. Validity or the concept that what is being measured is actually what is measured is an important part of the logic that determines what the problem is, how the problem is logically broken down into components through the proposing of tentative solutions and gathering of data. Reliability or the concept that measurements are accurate and consistent, are required in the gathering of data. This paper will discuss* each of these elements.

Goals for Research
In my doctoral program, and specifically in the research associated with my dissertation, I intend to conduct both applied and action research. In applied research one* answers questions “ which can inform human decision making about practical problems ” ( Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 44 ). In action research one* works towards “ solving an ongoing problem in ” ( p. 44 ) a work environment. I am a Senior Principal Technical Instructor for a leading computer software and hardware company that is investing heavily in training customers and employees virtually over the internet. I am interested in determining the significant elements of the process of successful and effective online learning and then hone a topic that will not only make a significant contribution to my organization, but “ advance the frontiers of knowledge, perhaps by leading to new ways of thinking, suggesting possible applications, or paving the way for further research in the field <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 45 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Answering an Unanswered Question
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Research begins with a question, preferably one that introduces a paradigm shift, a way of seeing the world in a completely different way. In my organization the curriculum for face-to-face learning is exactly the same as that for virtual learning. I wonder if this practice is the optimal way to design a virtual class for the retention of knowledge by our students. Instructors in our organization teach both types of classes, and it intrigues me if the skills that are effective in face-to-face instruction are fully-, partially-, or non-transferable to virtual instruction. Each question has application in the real world, but without research the answers to these questions remain a matter of guesswork, or conjecture.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The Goal of Research
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The researcher is next charged to convert the question that is relevant and purposeful into “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">a clear, unambiguous statement of the problem <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 3 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) to be addressed. Any number of questions that are contemplated open up avenues that are vast and broad, while research is designed to answer a specific question that will solve a specific problem. The researcher needs to identify the ramifications of his or her question to determine if it matters. Many questions occur simply because one is curious, but a question that is research worthy will potentially expand knowledge and open up pathways that did not exist before. The questions that I asked in the previous section describe a multitude of problems. For the question of curriculum development perhaps the essential problem is how to measure whether a student has retained the knowledge?* Is it truly retention, or was the knowledge known prior to instruction? What timeframe is relevant to identify retention, short- or long-term, and what do these specific terms mean? Just as it is impossible to hit a target that one cannot see, without a clearly defined problem statement research has no direction, or goal.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Map Subproblems and Assumptions
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The previous section demonstrated that problems can be multilayered. In order to conveniently solve such a complex problem it is always beneficial to break the overall project into a number of subproblems, or logical steps. As each step is achieved one gets incrementally closer to the overall goal. During the formulation of these subproblems it is essential to ensure the validity of the logic behind them, to ensure that the path designated to reach the overall goal is truly aligned with the problem statement, and requires appropriate critical thinking from the researcher. During this period of formulation the researcher needs to identify the facts or “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">self-evident truths <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 5 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) that he or she knows to be true in relation to the problem, and the subproblems. These facts become the working assumptions upon which the identification of possible solutions and gathering of data rests. At this point in the project the researcher* identifies the plan for achieving the goal.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Propound Hypotheses
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Once a plan has been established for answering the question it is necessary to identify possible solutions for each subproblem. These possible solutions or hypotheses should be based on logic and sound theory, and may ultimately be used to complement or extend theory if they are supported in the research. These hypotheses suggest what an answer might look like to a specific problem and will generally contribute to determining what data needs to be collected, and the means of manipulating the collected data in order to garner meaning as the research proceeds.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Gather Relevant Data*
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A research project is not complete without the collection of both valid, meaning the experimental data is aligned with the problem, and reliable, meaning the data must be accurate and consistent regarding how it was measured, data. Data gathering, whether qualitative or quantitative or both, is the next to the last step of the project. This step is an extension of the steps that have gone before and if each previous step was properly aligned with the problem and question to be derived the data gathered will be useable in the last step.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Synthesize
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">The research project only concludes after the researcher takes the data and combines it with the hypotheses and assumptions and research methodology that has gone before, and derives meaning from the data based on the preceding steps, formulating and synthesizing that meaning into language. The interpretation of data is always subjective. It is not unusual for two human beings armed with the same facts to arrive at different conclusions because of differences in their zeitgeist or world view. It should, however, be difficult to impossible for two researchers who follow similar research methodologies regarding the same problem, and collecting similar data, to come to completely disparate conclusions. Much of the interpretation of the data follows from the methodology used; therefore the conclusions should be similar, although one researcher may be more erudite, intuitive and deductive than the other. =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Conclusion = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">A research project follows six contiguous steps. All projects begin with a question that is then whittled to a clearly defined problem statement, which is then subdivided into a logical path that encompasses the problem, proposes reasonable solutions or logical corollaries and valid assumptions, leading to the collection of valid and reliable data that can be organized and interpreted.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Consistently space twice <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Be careful of anthropomorphism – a paper cannot discuss – only people can. Better to say the purpose of this paper…. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Avoid using “one”, “you”, “we”, etc. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Keep the focus on the research and away from the researcher <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Okay for this paper but as you go remember the only questions in your dissertation will be your research questions <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Per previous comment – keep the focus on the research and off the researcher as much as possible <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Do not leave a heading at the bottom of a page


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Kozub, R. M. (2010). An ANOVA analysis of the relationships between business students’ learning styles and effectiveness of web based instruction. //American Journal of Business Education, 3//(3), 89-98. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">In a class of upper-class college students, Kozub failed to find a significant correlation between Kolb’s experiential learning style theory and the efficacy of Web Based Instruction (WBI).* Kozub used an 2x4 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) analysis experiment to determine whether students preferred learning styles, as measured by Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI-IIa), dictated how well they did in terms of performance, or likeability, on a classroom module, that was presented in three different manners – text-only, using WBI, and using enhanced features of WBI.* A comparison was made of the 159 participants and their preferred learning style, their ACT composite scores, three other in-class examinations, and the score on the in-class test for this module, and a survey taken after the module to determine their reaction to it.* The findings of this experiment were that while there is a positive correlation between how well the student liked the module and the scores they earned, and between their scores and their cumulative ACT scores, there is no correlation between learning style, and (a) how the material is presented, (b) test score, and (c) reaction to how the material is presented. This study supports the findings of other researchers, notably Hodges and Evans (1983) and Trout and Crawley (1985) that there is no “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">predictive utility of the learning styles construct <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 96 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).* The author did state that more research needs to be done to determine if, how, and when the use of enhancements in WBI would be beneficial to the student.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Zemke, R., & Zemke, S. (1995). Adult Learning: What do we know for sure? //Training, 32//, 69-82. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/ps/i.do?&id=GALE% 7CA17179010&v=2.1&u=pres1571&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">In this seminal article containing a literature review regarding adult learning, the authors provided a brief background into the history of adult learning, or andragogy, as a specific field, and then presented major trends in the field from more than 300 articles.* The authors divided this task into three sections – the things that the field knows about (a) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">adult learners and their motivation <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” (b) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">designing curricula for adults <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">,” and (c) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">working with adults in the classroom <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 17 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The major themes they identified regarding adult motivation to learn focuses on three items, (a) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learning is problem-centered <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” (Motivation to Learn, para. 6), (b) adult learners seek learning more often than not because of a life-changing event, but can be motivated “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">by appealing to personal growth or gain <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 10 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (c) motivation “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">can be increased <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The authors noted eight focuses related to curriculum design, which are (a) the learning experience itself “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">should be problem-centered <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Curriculum Design, para. 2 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) it is important to access “the entry-level knowledge and understanding of participants” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 3 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) new knowledge should be related to existing experience, (d) exercises and activities should “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">contain a reflective element <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 9 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) in order for learning to take place, (e) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">feedback and recognition should be planned <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 10 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (f) the design should “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">account for learning-style differences <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 12 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (g) the design should accommodate “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">adults’ continued growth and changing values <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 15 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (h) design should include means to take the new knowledge and apply it to the situation for which they sought learning. The authors discerned three “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">common threads . . . [that] suggest some useful guidelines <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">In the Classroom, para. 3 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) for in class instruction. These threads are (a) the instructor needs to “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">create a safe and comfortable environment <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">para. 4 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) instructors should be more facilitator and less lecturer, and (c) promote the contribution and collaboration of the students as part of the discussion and learning. The authors provide an excellent springboard to determine not only what is known, but where gaps in knowledge occur in the field of andragogy.*


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">McGlone, J. R. (2011). Adult learning styles and on‐line educational preference. //Research in Higher Education Journal, 12//, 1‐9. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/889136333? accountid=28180

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">In this literature review the author identified that the foremost andragogical theory to the teaching of adults “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">requires a process-focused approach <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 4 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">)* and accepted the eight-element process model of Knowles, Holton & Swanson (2005) as “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">one of the most comprehensive discussions on the theoretical and historical background of <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 4 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) andragogy,* and discusses in some detail each of the elements. The author then identified that the Kolb Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) is an “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">instrument that is used widely in studies related to <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 5 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) evaluating differences between adult students, and presents three studies that use this instrument. The author reports the findings of three studies regarding adults and on-line education, noting that these studies indicated two things, (a) “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">more and more . . . adults want to enroll in these courses, in an effort to improve their employment or qualification standing <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 6 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), but (b) adult learners were “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">all relatively dissatisfied with the on-line learning experience <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">(p. 6 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Another study showed that most on-line courses placed less of a focus on the “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">development of critical-thinking skills or other forms of critical reflection on the material . . . [making the experience] less impactful <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 6 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Two recommendations were expressed by the author as suggested by the literature, (a) make sure that the “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">latest hardware and software improvements <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 8 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) are used in the on-line training, and (b) either train students on how to utilize the computer, or “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">adapt the material to allow for better internet learning skills <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">p. 8 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) for the students.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Conclusion or findings <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Methodology (ANOVA experiment) and main points <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Population studied <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Evaluation of the study <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Methodology (Review of the Literature) followed by main points. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Evaluation of article <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Methodology (Review of the Literature) and main point. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Works relationship to other works in this area of study.


 * = References ||
 * * Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2010). //<span style="font-family: 'Calibri-Italic','sans-serif';">Practical research: Planning and design //. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. ||