EL7006+Learning+Theories


 * ** EL7006-8 ** ||  ||
 * ** Facilitating Adult Learning Online ** || ** 1 Learning Theories ** ||
 * Excellent work, Stephen. Well written, researched, and organized. Excellent scholarly approach and use of current peer reviewed resources. **
 * I hope you will use this class to further explore the current theories of online learning, especially as they pertain to adults. You should continue to look beyond the course resources and consider them as topics or issues rather than as the last word on elearning. **
 * Another thing that I would invite you to do in this class as it is to explore various ways of using web-based multimedia for scholarly expression in addition to linear text formats. This is becoming an essential skill in the elearning profession. As scholars in the field it is important to be able to critique applications and practices from a position of first-hand experience. I have assembled a basic wiki to model some of the possibilities. https://mentoringbyglengatin.wikispaces.com/ **
 * Another thing that I would invite you to do in this class as it is to explore various ways of using web-based multimedia for scholarly expression in addition to linear text formats. This is becoming an essential skill in the elearning profession. As scholars in the field it is important to be able to critique applications and practices from a position of first-hand experience. I have assembled a basic wiki to model some of the possibilities. https://mentoringbyglengatin.wikispaces.com/ **

=Adult Learning Theories= There is no universal adult learning theory to which all practitioners of adult education subscribe. Hundreds of learning theories exist. The philosophical foundations of the current theories are variegated and controversial. Most Practitioners admit to an eclectic approach to theory, or neglect theory completely and work from their own intuition. Adult online learning has been most influenced by two theories; andragogy and constructivism.

Adult Learning Theories
Hundreds of learning theories are available, providing a rich foundation for understanding the complexity of learning and teaching ( Minter, 2011 ). Each theory has many characteristics common to other theories, strengths, weaknesses, supporters, and detractors. Many theories do not distinguish between teaching adults and teaching children, or are not applicable to adult learners ( Minter, 2011 ). Most authors concur that the main branches of learning theory are behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanism ( Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009; Yusoff & Salim, 2012, Abela, 2009 ) though little consensus follows this admission ( Watts, 2012a ).

Constructivism
Constructivism is an extension of cognitivism, which focuses on internal perceptions, brain-based learning, and the individual as the locus of learning ( Merriam, Cafarella, & Baumgartner, 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Constructivism spotlights the subjective nature of knowledge and mental constructs and is “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the most widely accepted model of learning in education today <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Hoic-Bozic et al., 2009, p. 21 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Learning is viewed as an active process in which the learner constructs his or her own subjective representations of reality, and new information is impinged by prior knowledge ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ashworth, Brennan, Egan, Hamilton, & Saenz, 2004; Martinez-Caro, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The underlying premise of constructivism engages the learner as a whole person at a cognitive, social, and affective level to shape deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010; Ke & Xie, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The theory assumes that learning is (a) goal oriented, (b) active and meaningful or relevant, (c) reflective, (d) collaborative, and (e) a partnership ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Segrave & Holt, 2003; Watts, 2012a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Ruey (2010) asserted that constructivism is more effective in terms of learning than are more passive or teacher-centered approaches.

Andragogy
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy, “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">the art and science of helping adults learn <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard, Hinchey, & Bennett, 2011, p. 2; Cercone, 2008, p. 137 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), is an extension of humanism, which focuses on human potential, freedom, and intentionality. Similar to cognitivism and constructivism, learning is student-centered for the humanist. In humanism, however, the ultimate goal is for the learner to become autonomous and self-actualized ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Malcolm Knowles was the leading proponent of andragogy in the U.S. and developed a number of tenets that describe the adult learner, and these have been further expanded by various authors ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Watts, 2012b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). The main principles of andragogy include:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are independent and self-directed ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a, Fidishun, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Knowles, 1984; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">As adults learn they become more self-directed and need to have control over their learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008; McGlone, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners want to be acknowledged for and have their experiences used in learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Blanchard et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Knowles, 1984 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adults are more motivated to learn due to present life challenges they want to handle better ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Donavant, 2009; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners are interested in learning how to solve problems, perform tasks, or improve their life ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners become more intrinsically motivated and less extrinsically motivated; focusing on aspirations and self-actualization ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009, Donavant, 2009; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Adult learners expect a student-centered approach to learning in an environment of mutual respect between teacher and student ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

Implications of constructivism and andragogy
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Andragogy and constructivism are not mutually exclusive. The literature consistently identifies six characteristics that contribute to optimal online learning for adults ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). These six characteristics include (a) a strong student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2011; Chyung & Vachon, 2005; Jackson, Jones, & Rodriguez, 2010; Simonson, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) student-student interaction and collaboration ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami, Bernard, Bures, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2010; McGlone, 2011; Pelz, 2010; Sinclair, 2009; Yang & Cornelious, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) the need for reflection by the learner to tie new learning to existing experience ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Cacciamani, Cesareni, Martini, Ferrini, & Fujita, 2012; Cercone, 2008; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) development of a sense of community among class participants ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, 2007; Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, & Liu, 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) immediate real world application of learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b; Blanchard et al., 2011; Ke & Xie, 2009; Segrave & Holt, 2003; Zemke & Zemke, 1995 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) student motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Baskas, 2011b; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Omar, Kalulu, & Belmasrour, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Research demonstrates that as these characteristics are included and emphasized in online learning the performance of adult learners’ increases, as does their participation, and satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Watts, 2012a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Student-instructor relationship and facilitation by the instructor.** “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Development of the student-teacher relationship [is] the key to the success of distance education <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Simonson, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999, p. 63 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). A basic tenet of constructivism is that learning is a partnership between the student and the instructor and should be focused on the learner ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Segrave & Holt, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while andragogy expects learning to be student centered with mutual respect between instructor and student ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Karge et al., 2011; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Student satisfaction and learning outcomes increase in online classes as the instructor facilitates and mentors ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Blanchard et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) while students “ <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">become active participants in learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">” ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Yang & Cornelious, 2005, Ensuring Effective Online Instruction, para. 3; see also, Donavant, 2009; Ferguson & De Felice, 2010; Gunawardena, Linder-VanBerschot, LaPointe, & Rao, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Student-student interaction and collaboration.** Constructivists assume that learning must be collaborative ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Commonwealth of Learning, 2000 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while according to andragogy the learner is self-directed and needs to control learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011; Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Student-centered learning melds both of these assumptions and provides an environment where students can interact, work, and collaborate with other students. Interaction between students has been shown to promote understanding of course content, stimulate higher-order thinking, decrease feelings of isolation, and engender a sense of community in online classes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Palloff & Pratt, 2003; Watts, 2012a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Several studies reflect the efficacy of theory by demonstrating that as levels of interactivity between students increase so does student satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Gunawardena et al., 2010; Lee, Redmond, & Dolan, 2008; Omar et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and significant learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen, Crosky, McAlpine, Hoffman, & Munroe, 2009; Cabrera-Lozoya, Cerdan, Cano, Garcia-Sanchez, & Lujan, 2012; Chen & Lien, 2011; Hurtado & Guerrero, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Learner reflection.** Andragogy does not adequately address reflection ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009; Cercone, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), while reflection is a major assumption of constructivism ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Segrave & Holt, 2003 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Reflection has been shown to stimulate metacognitive expertise ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cacciamani et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), meta-learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011a; Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), high-quality learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ke, 2010; Ruey, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and deep learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Cercone, 2008; Ke & Xie, 200 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">9). Reflection has been revealed as a key online design dimension ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ali & Ahmad, 2011; Ke, 2010; Yang & Cornelius, 2005 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Students appear to prefer the ability to reflect before engaging in discussions in asynchronous online learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Ke & Hoadley, 2009; Martinez-Caro, 2011; Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), to examine their biases ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Baskas, 2011b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), or perspectives ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Sinclair, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Through self-reflection students can transform experience and knowledge ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Buch & Bartley, 2002; Chan Mow, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), internalize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Ally, 2008; Strang, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and contextualize ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009; Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) learning ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Watts, 2012a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Developing a sense of community among participants.** Vital to successful online learning is the development of a sense of community between participants ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007; Boling et al., 2011; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Community is an extension of the relationships between a student and the instructor and other students ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sharples et al., 2007 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Significant benefits follow when students feel a sense of belonging to a community and care for other members ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Watts, 2012a <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Benefits for students include; (a) better understanding of the material ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (b) additional reflective thinking ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bradley, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (c) earlier and improved bonds than in traditional classrooms ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pelz, 2010 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (d) increased motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abrami et al., 2010; Boling et al., 2011, Karge et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and satisfaction ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), (e) greater persistence ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), and (f) better learning outcomes ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Boling et al., 2011; Fahy, 2008; Moisey & Hughes, 2008; Pigliapoco & Bogliolo, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Immediate real world application of learning.** Looking through the lens of constructivism and andragogy, learning for adults is about application of relevant knowledge to solve real world or life challenges. Encouraging students to bring their experience into the learning situation while designing the course to focus on problems or tasks they are likely to encounter after learning acts as a student motivator ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Fidishun, 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">), enriches learning, and expands students ability to handle actual problems ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Allen et al., 2009; Ruey, 2010, Watts, 2012b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Student motivation.** Motivation is the most important principle upon which learning is built ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Abela, 2009 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Andragogy assumes adults become more intrinsically motivated without explaining the process or factors for that transformation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri, Xaymoungkhoun, Zo, Rho, & Ciganek, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) or exploring extrinsic motivation. Constructivism assumes that learning is goal oriented requiring some motivation from the learner. Motivation reflects the amount of effort applied in persisting and attaining a goal ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Watts, 2012b <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and can be intrinsic – due to self-fulfillment and interest, or extrinsic – due to a reward or hope of a specific outcome ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Bhuasiri et al., 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">). Interest by the adult learner constitutes a key component of motivation ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Guilbaud & Jerome-D’Emilia, 2008 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">) and both contribute to educational success ( <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 90%;">Kiliç-Cakmak, 2010; Lam & Bordia, 2008; Omar et al., 2011 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Conclusion
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Instructors of adults in online learning typically subscribe to two main theories that are symbiotic; andragogy and constructivism. For the constructivist, knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner based on his or her interactions with the learning environment, the instructor, other students, and his or her past experiences and knowledge. Each learner creates his or her own world, without hope of achieving knowledge of objective reality. Andragogy enumerates a number of validated assumptions describing the characteristics of adult learners. Combined, these theories contribute to a didactic view for teaching adult online learning consistent with research suggesting six characteristics for optimal learning.


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